Chronic Health Paper: Lung Cancer Essay

Chronic conditions are non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, and respiratory diseases. Collectively, these diseases pose significant health and economic burdens by resulting in increased mortality rates, increased care costs, compromised quality of life, daily-adjusted life years (DALYs), and prolonged hospitalization. According to Hajat & Stein (2018), chronic conditions are the leading causes of global mortality since they account for three in five global deaths. Lung cancer is among chronic conditions that result in multiple health and economic consequences due to its association with premature deaths, disproportionate prevalence and incidences, and increased financial burden on patients, families, and healthcare institutions. As a result, understanding the disease’s epidemiological aspects such as risk factors, signs, symptoms, and preventative interventions is essential in promoting evidence-based approaches for reducing its subsequent burdens. This paper elaborates on the epidemiological concepts of lung cancer, surveillance and reporting approaches, screening guidelines, and a plan for preventing the disease.

Background and Significance of the Disease

Mayo Clinic (2021), presents lung cancer as “a type of cancer that begins in the lungs.” However, there are exceptions where other types of cancer like breast, pancreas, kidney, or skin can metastasize to the lungs (American Cancer Society, 2019). Lung cancer is either non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) or small cell lung cancer (SCLC). In terms of the spreading patterns of the two broad categories, SCLC spread faster than NSCLC and accounts for about 70% of late diagnoses (American Cancer Society, 2019). Although the two categories of lung cancer exhibit varying prevalence and spreading patterns, they emanate from abnormal cell growth and can spread to other parts of the body, resulting in adverse health consequences if early preventive and management interventions are insufficient.

Signs and Symptoms of Lung Cancer

Lung cancer manifests through various signs and symptoms that signify abnormalities in lung tissues. According to Mayo Clinic (2021), the identified signs and symptoms of the disease include persistent coughs, coughing up blood, breathing difficulties and shortness, hoarseness, chest pain, headache, and unexplained weight loss. Although these signs and systems are relatively common among respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, it is essential to consult healthcare professionals to confirm the presence of lung cancer through proven screening strategies.

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Incidence and Prevalence

Lung cancer is one of the most prevalent types of cancer globally and nationally. According to Loomans-Kroop & Umar (2018), approximately 1.7 million people had lung cancer. The disease accounted for 609000 deaths globally in 2018. In the United States, there were 221,097 new cases of lung cancer in 2019 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022). In the same breath, it accounted for over 139,000 deaths in the country. Although the data regarding lung cancer’s global and national prevalence and incidences are available, there are deficiencies in state-level data about newly-reported incidences of lung cancer and its subsequent prevalence rates. Following a thorough search and analyses of the reputable databases such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the American Cancer Society (ACS), and the National Cancer Institute (NCI), the writer could not locate statistics on the prevalence and incidence of lung cancer for the state of (Insert your state here). As a result, the insufficient data regarding lung cancer prevalence and incidences at the state level signifies a gap in surveillance that will be included in the “plan” section of this paper.

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Epidemiological Analysis of Lung Cancer

Risk Factors and Causes

Lung cancer emanates from various risk factors that constitute modifiable and non-modifiable risks. Chaitanya Thandra et al. (2021) argue that the common modifiable causes of lung cancer include tobacco smoking, exposure to secondhand smoke, cannabis smoking, occupational exposure to asbestos, radon, and air pollution. Tobacco use, especially cigarette smoking is the primary risk factor for lung cancer since it accounts for about 80% of lung cancer cases in the Western world (Chaitanya Thandra et al., 2021). On the other hand, the non-modifiable risks for lung cancer are age, gender, race, and family history of the disease. In terms of age, the disease is more prevalent in adults aged 55-74 years (53% of the total cases) and older adults aged >75 years (37% of the total cases). Equally, gender is a factor of consideration when determining the at-risk population for lung cancer. For instance, men are more susceptible to lung cancer and its associated deaths than women due to their engagement in risky behaviors such as cigarette smoking. However, trends are changing because women are susceptible to hormonal influence and are emerging as smokers too.

Social Determinants of Health and Lung Cancer

Although people are susceptible to lung cancer and its adverse effects, including premature deaths, increased care costs, and prolonged hospitalization, the disease’s prevalence and effects are disproportionate to people of specific socio-economic and demographic attributes. According to de Groot et al. (2018), the social determinants of health for lung cancer in the US include race/ethnicity, educational attainment, income, and occupational aspects. In terms of race, non-Hispanic Black (NHB) men have the highest incidence at 87.9 per 100000, followed by non-Hispanic White Men and American Indian/Alaska Natives at 75.9 and 71.9 per 100000 respectively. On the other hand, Asian/Pacific Islanders and Hispanic men have the lowest lung cancer incidence rate at 45.2 and 40.6 per 100000 respectively (de Groot et al., 2018). The disproportionate incidences of lung cancer in respect to races rely massively upon the interplay between other social determinants of health, including varying access to early screening services, access to quality and timely care, and neighborhood issues that facilitate risky behaviors such as cigarette smoking.

Concerning educational attainment, risky behaviors like cigarette smoking are more prevalent in individuals with less than high school education. According to de Groot et al. (2018), the prevalence rate of lung cancer is about 31 % among individuals with less than high school education, compared to about 9.1% among college graduates. When considering education attainment as a social determinant of health for lung cancer, it is valid to contend that the disease exhibits similar disproportionate incidences as cigarette smoking. In this sense, individuals with less than a high school education are more susceptible to the disease than college graduates (166.6 per 100000 and 57.6 per 100000 respectively) (de Groot et al., 2018). The major reasons for varying prevalence rates of lung cancer in people with different educational attainment include the involvement in risky behaviors and the willingness to quit these habits. For example, college graduates are less likely to engage in cigarette smoking but more open to the idea of quitting the habit compared to people with less than high school education.

Finally, military men and people grappling with poverty are vulnerable to lung cancer. For instance, de Groot et al. (2018) contend that smoking prevalence is about 24% in the active military and 29% of male veterans are smokers. On the other hand, approximately 27.7% of people below the federal poverty line (FPL) engage in cigarette smoking as a strategy for coping with stress amidst life struggles. The prevalence of cigarette smoking among these populations renders them susceptible to lung cancer, alongside other smoking-related diseases such as throat cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Health and Economic Burdens of Lung Cancer

Undoubtedly, lung cancer is the leading cause of global and national mortalities. Chaitanya Thandra et al. (2021) argue that the disease accounts for 2 million diagnoses and 1.8 million deaths globally. In the US, more than 139000 people died from lung cancer in 2019. Alongside resulting in increased mortality rates, the disease contributes to the global and national upsurge in care costs. According to the 2021 annual report by the National Cancer Institute (NCI), the 2019 national out-of-pocket cost for lung cancer was $1.35 billion, while the total national patient economic burden associated with cancer care was $21.09 billion. On the other hand, Islami et al. (2019) contend that the country lost about $21.3 billion in the form of persons-years of life lost (PYLL) and lost earnings due to deaths related to lung cancer in 2015. It is essential to note the overall economic burden of the disease includes the cost of treatment and total revenue lost due to premature deaths. Based on these criteria, it is valid to argue that the economic burden of the disease is ever-increasing due to the increased disease prevalence and incidences.

Disease Screening and Guidelines

Undoubtedly, early screening services for lung cancer emerge as the most profound strategy for preventing the disease’s progress and subsequent adverse outcomes. The recommended screening test for lung cancer is low-dose computed tomography (low-dose CT scan or LDCT). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2021), LDCT involves the use of low-dose of radiation to make detailed images of the lung. Although this strategy is essential in revealing the presence or absence of lung cancer, it has various risks, including the likelihood of false-positive results, overdiagnosis, and consistent exposure to radiation which may cause cancer in healthy people. Therefore, the US preventive services task force (USPSTF) recommends annual lung cancer screening via LDCT for people who have a history of cigarette smoking, individuals who have ceased to smoke in the past 15 years, and adults aged 50 to 80 years.

Surveillance and Reporting

Disease surveillance and reporting are profound approaches that enable healthcare professionals to access and record up-to-date data regarding its prevalence and incidences. In the context of lung cancer surveillance and reporting, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses the Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance System (BRFSS) to track data (Richards et al., 2020). The BRFSS is a national system for conducting telephone surveys that collect data about US residents regarding their health-related risks behaviors, chronic health conditions, and the use of preventive services. Although this system can collect data in all 50 states, it can only complete about 400000 adult interviews each year, meaning the BRFSS questionnaires cannot reach all the at-risk individuals. However, the subsequent data from this surveillance system is shared among healthcare stakeholders such as the CDC, the Human Resources and Services Administration, Administration on Aging, Department of Veteran Affairs, and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration for further analysis.

The Plan for Action

Based on the diverse findings and contentions from scholarly literature, it is essential to note that lung cancer is profound health and economic threat, considering its consequences such as premature deaths, increased care costs, prolonged hospitalization, disabilities, and compromised quality of life. As a result, prospective nurse practitioners can play a significant role in complementing the concerted efforts for addressing the disease’s prevalence and effects. In this sense, it is possible to address this chronic condition by educating the public on ideal strategies for abandoning risky factors, promoting early screening and testing activities, and educating patients on appropriate self-care interventions.

Assisting at-risk populations to abstain from tobacco use is a profound primary prevention strategy for lung cancer (Loomans-Kroop & Umar, 2019). For instance, it limits exposure to risks and can prevent the disease from occurring (Kisling & Das, 2022). Nurses can empower individuals to quit smoking by implementing education and awareness programs to enhance their knowledge and awareness of the potential adverse effects of lung cancer and the rationale for ceasing to smoke. Secondly, nurses can address lung cancer by encouraging at-risk populations to access early screening services. According to Loomans-Kroop & Umar (2019), nurses should avail low-dose computed tomography for adults aged 50-80 years who have a 30-pack-year smoking history and former smokers in the last 15 years. The purpose of providing LDCT services is to promote early disease detection and prevent the disease’s progress. As a result, this strategy is an example of secondary prevention approaches for lung cancer.

Thirdly, nurses can promote self-care interventions and provide targeted therapies and palliative care for patients with lung cancer (Loomans-Kroop & Umar, 2019). The purpose of these tertiary prevention measures is to reduce the disease’s severity and associated complications. Finally, prospective nurses can advocate for patients by preserving their dignity, promoting patient equality, and championing social justice to address the disproportionate effects and prevalence of lung cancer. Collectively, these strategies are essential in reducing the disease’s burden and improving patient outcomes.

Conclusion

Undeniably, lung cancer is the leading cause of premature deaths, increased care costs, prolonged hospitalization, and other adverse effects. The disease results in disproportionate effects and is consistent with various social determinants of health, including educational attainment, income, occupational aspects, and neighborhood issues. Further, the disease prevails due to the interplay between multiple risk factors, including cigarette smoking, occupational exposure to pollutants, air pollution, family history of tobacco use, and exposure to secondhand smoke. Although non-modifiable factors can determine the prevalence and incidences of lung cancer, the significant role of modifiable risk factors like smoking offer opportunities for preventing and managing the disease. For instance, nurses can address the disease by intercepting risk factors, promoting early screening programs, and providing dignified palliative care for patients with lung cancer. Finally, they can advocate for patients by preserving their dignity, promoting patient safety, and providing evidence-based care to improve outcomes. Notably, these strategies are consistent with the three levels of disease prevention; primary, secondary, and tertiary.

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References

American Cancer Society. (2019, October 1). What is Lung Cancer? https://www.cancer.org/cancer/lung-cancer/about/what-is.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, December 17). Who should be screened for lung cancer? https://cdc.gov/cancer/lung/basic_info/screening.htm#

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, June 1). U.S. Cancer Statistics: Lung Cancer Stat Bite. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/uscs/about/stat-bites/stat-bite-lung.htm#

Chaitanya Thandra, K., Barsouk, A., Saginala, K., Sukumar Aluru, J., & Barsouk, A. (2021). Epidemiology of lung cancer. Współczesna Onkologia, 25(1), 45–52. https://doi.org/10.5114/wo.2021.103829

de Groot, P. M., Wu, C. C., Carter, B. W., & Munden, R. F. (2018). The epidemiology of lung cancer. Translational Lung Cancer Research, 7(3), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.21037/tlcr.2018.05.06

Hajat, C., & Stein, E. (2018). The global burden of multiple chronic conditions: A narrative review. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12, 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.10.008

Islami, F., Miller, K. D., Siegel, R. L., Zheng, Z., Zhao, J., Han, X., Ma, J., Jemal, A., & Yabroff, K. R. (2019). National and state estimates of lost earnings from cancer deaths in the United States. JAMA Oncology, 5(9), e191460. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2019.1460

Kisling, L. A., & Das, J. M. (2022). Prevention strategies. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537222/

Loomans-Kropp, H. A., & Umar, A. (2019). Cancer prevention and screening: The next step in the era of precision medicine. Npj Precision Oncology, 3(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41698-018-0075-9

Mayo Clinic. (2021, March 23). Lung cancer – Symptoms and causes. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/lung-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20374620

National Cancer Institute. (2021, October 26). Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer part 2: The patient economic burden of cancer care was more than $21 billion in the United States in 2019. https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/annual-report-nation-part-2-economic-burden#

Richards, T. B., Soman, A., Thomas, C. C., VanFrank, B., Henley, J., Gallaway, S., & Richardson, L. C. (2020). Screening for Lung Cancer — 10 States, 2017. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(8), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6908a1

Introduction (Identification of the problem) with a clear presentation of the problem as well as the significance and a scholarly overview of the paperâ€™s content. No heading is used for the Introduction per APA current edition.

Background and Significance of the disease, to include: Definition, description, signs and symptoms. Incidence and prevalence of statistics by state with a comparison to national statistics pertaining to the disease. If after a search of the library and scholarly data bases, you are unable to find statistics for your home state, or other states, consider this a gap in the data and state as much in the body of the paper. For instance, you may state something like, â€œAfter an exhausting search of the scholarly data bases, this writer is unable to locate incidence and/or prevalence data for the state of â€¦. This indicates a gap in surveillance that will be included in the â€œPlanâ€ section of this paper.

Surveillance and Reporting: Current surveillance methods and mandated reporting processes as related to the chronic health condition chosen should be specific.
Epidemiological Analysis: Conduct a descriptive epidemiology analysis of the health condition. Be sure to include all of the 5 Wâ€™s: What, Who, Where, When, Why. Use details associated with all of the Wâ€™s, such as the â€œWhoâ€ which should include an analysis of the determinants of health. Include costs (both financial and social) associated with the disease or problem.
Screening and Guidelines: Review how the disease is diagnosed and current national standards (guidelines). Pick one screening test (review Week 2 Discussion Board) and review its sensitivity, specificity, predictive value, and cost.
Plan: Integrating evidence, provide a plan of how a nurse practitioner will address this chronic health condition after graduation. Provide three specific interventions that are based on the evidence and include how you will measure outcomes (how will you know that the interventions have utility, are useful?) Note:â€¯ Consider primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions as well as the integration of health policy advocacy efforts. All interventions should be based on evidence â€“ connected to a resource such as a scholarly piece of research.
Summary/Conclusion: Conclude in a clear manner with a brief overview of the keys points from each section of the paper utilizing integration of resources.
The paper should be formatted and organized into the following sections which focus on the chosen chronic health condition.
Adhere to all paper preparation guidelines (see below).

my topic is lung cancer.

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Chronic Health Paper: Lung Cancer Essay